Causes

Enlightenment ideas: Educated creoles (American-born people of Spanish descent) had read Locke, Rousseau, and the American Declaration of Independence.

Examples of successful revolution: The American, French, and Haitian revolutions demonstrated that colonial independence was achievable.

Creole resentment: Creoles were excluded from the highest colonial offices, which were reserved for peninsulares (Spanish-born officials). They paid taxes and produced wealth but had no political voice.

Trade restrictions: Spanish mercantilism prevented direct trade between colonies and other nations.

Napoleon's invasion of Spain (1808): Napoleon deposed the Spanish king and installed his brother Joseph. This severed colonial loyalty to the Crown and created a political opening.