Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)

Italian philosopher. In On Crimes and Punishments (1764), Beccaria argued against torture and the death penalty, and for proportional, predictable punishment based on reason rather than vengeance. His ideas reshaped criminal law throughout Europe.

Central claim: Punishment should be rational, proportional, and aimed at deterrence rather than vengeance. Torture and capital punishment are unjust.